Ozone is one of the chemical compounds that form part of the atmosphere. It
plays a key role in the stratosphere where the “ozone layer” is located and
absorbs large amounts of ultraviolet radiation. However, during austral
spring (August–November), there is a massive destruction of the ozone layer,
which is known as the “Antarctic ozone hole”. This phenomenon decreases
ozone concentration in that region, which may affect other regions in
addition to the polar one. This anomaly may also reach mid-latitudes; hence,
it is called the “secondary effect of the Antarctic ozone hole”. Therefore,
this study aims to identify the passage of an ozone secondary effect (OSE)
event in the region of the city of Santa Maria – RS (29.68∘ S,
53.80∘ W) by means of a multi-instrumental analysis using the
satellites TIMED/SABER, AURA/MLS, and OMI-ERS. Measurements were made in
São Martinho da Serra/RS – Brazil (29.53∘ S, 53.85∘ W)
using a sounding balloon and a Brewer Spectrophotometer. In addition, the
present study aims to describe and analyse the influence that this
stratospheric ozone reduction has on temperatures presented by these
instruments, including data collected through the radio occultation
technique. The event was first identified by the AURA/MLS satellite on
19 October 2016 over Uruguay. This reduction in ozone concentration was found
by comparing the climatology for the years 1996–1998 for the state of Rio
Grande do Sul, which is close to Uruguay. This event was already observed in
Santa Maria/RS-Brazil on 20 October 2016 as presented by the OMI-ERS
satellite and the Brewer Spectrophotometer. Moreover, a significant decrease
was reported by the TIMED/SABER satellite in Uruguay. On 21 October, the poor
ozone air mass was still over the region of interest, according to the
OMI-ERS satellite, data from the sounding balloon launched in Santa
Maria/RS-Brazil, and measurements made by the AURA/MLS satellite.
Furthermore, the influence of ozone on the stratosphere temperature was
observed during this period. Despite a continuous decrease detected in
height, the temperature should have followed an increasing pattern in the
stratospheric layer. Finally, the TIMED/SABER and OMI-ERS satellites showed
that on 23 October, the air mass with low ozone concentration was moving
away, and its layer, as well as the temperature, in the stratosphere was
re-established.
Atmospheric composition and structure (middle atmosphere – composition and chemistry; instruments and techniques)Introduction
The atmospheric ozone (O3) is a trace chemical compound in the
stratosphere (between the altitudes of 20 and 35 km), where it forms the
“ozone layer” with maximum concentration at 25 km. Ozone plays a key role
in life on Earth, energy balance and water vapour. This compound acts as a
shield for type B ultraviolet radiation emitted by the Sun and its UV-B
absorption capacity benefits human health since this radiation is harmful to
living beings (Salby, 1996).
Backward trajectories from NOAA's HYSPLIT model. The trajectories
are shown according to height levels: 28 (green), 24 (blue), and 22 km
(red). Source: obtained using command lines at HYSPLIT/NOAA (2017).
Although most production of ozone takes place in the tropical
region due to the direct reception of solar radiation, the highest
concentration of this gas is in the polar region. This is due to the
Brewer–Dobson circulation, which is a special type of southern transport
that transports the stratosphere air mass from the beginning of its journey
at the Equator until it flows away to the poles (Butchart, 2014). As a
result, ozone is concentrated in a particular region of the planet. Another
important variable is the potential vorticity, which is used to study the
rich ozone air mass movement and its filaments that present a high potential
vorticity gradient at the centre of the air mass (Pinheiro et al., 2011).
However, there is a large destruction in the ozone layer in austral spring
(August–November), which directly affects the polar region. This destruction
is known as the “Antarctic ozone hole” (Gettelman et al., 2011), and it
causes drastic reductions in ozone content in Antarctica. Once this ozone
reduction takes place, violet radiation, which would be previously absorbed,
passes freely through the atmosphere and reaches the surface of Earth.
Ozone reduction/depletion is not an exclusive feature to the polar region as
it can still reach mid-latitudes. This phenomenon is known as the “secondary
effect of the ozone hole”. This occurs when the polar vortex releases
filaments to these regions and disturbs ozone concentration, resulting in a
temporary decrease in ozone for approximately 7 to 20 days. This influence
over mid-latitudes was first observed by Kirchhoff et al. (1996) and later
reported by Pinheiro et al. (2011), who also observed this phenomenon in
southern Brazil.
It is imperative to highlight the Montreal Protocol on Substances that
Deplete the Ozone Layer, which was ratified by 196 states, including Brazil,
in 1987. The Montreal Protocol is an international treaty designed to reduce
ozone-depleting substances such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Over the span
of 3 decades, this international agreement yielded a positive response in
ozone levels as countries have been on track to recover levels previously
observed in 1980 (WMO, 2018).
Therefore, this multi-instrumental study aims to show/prove the occurrence of
a secondary effect of the ozone hole in southern Brazil, especially in the
city of Santa Maria, RS (29.68∘ S, 53.80∘ W). Additionally,
the aim is to verify the temperature behaviour during the event by analysing
data from six different instruments, which are the AURA/MLS, TIMED/SABER and
OMI-ERS satellites, a ground-based instrument (Brewer), a sounding balloon, a
GPS-PRO, as well as a forecast model.
Methodology and instruments
The event that influenced the ozone decrease in southern Brazil in
October 2016 was first predicted by a forecast model available at
SULFLUX (2018). According to the climatology for the season, when these OSE
events occurred (Chubachi, 1984), the poor ozone air mass was expected to
arrive around 21 October in southern Brazil. Based on the model prediction, a
sounding balloon was launched on 21 October in order to measure the ozone
concentration profile over Santa Maria (29.68∘ S,
53.80∘ W), southern Brazil, on this specific day. The Hybrid Single
Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory (HYSPLIT) model from NOAA, which is
one of the first dispersion models used to trace air mass trajectories (Glenn
et al., 2017), also confirmed this event, and the result showed the
retroactive trajectory towards the south of South America (Fig. 1).
TIMED/SABER (blue circle) and AURA/MLS (red circle) sounding
locations from 19 to 23 October 2016. On 21 October the balloon sounding (red
triangle, launch; orange triangle, apex) and the GPS-RO sounding (green
circle).
The sounding balloon was launched in Santa Maria and ascended approximately
31 km with eastward displacement from the launch spot (Fig. 2). The
methodology used for the launch followed a pattern used in Natal-RN
(5.79∘ S, 35.20∘ W) in a study by Witte et al. (2017). The
measurements collected by the sounding balloon used here were ozone and
temperature.
In addition to the ozone sounding data, ground-based measurements included
the total ozone column. The Brewer Spectrophotometer was used to identify the
large depletion in the ozone content. It was located at the Southern Space
Observatory (OES/INPE) in São Martinho da Serra/RS-Brazil
(29.53∘ S, 53.85∘ W), which is 30 km from Santa Maria.
Ozone and temperature profiles were obtained from the TIMED/SABER and
AURA/MLS satellites. OMI satellite images on board the ERS-2 satellite were
also used. All instruments will be closely described below.
Ozone partial pressure profile as obtained by the ozonesonde
(black), AURA/MLS (red), TIMED/SABER (blue) and climatology from ozonesonde
balloons campaigns between 1996 and 1998 (grey) (following Guarnieri et al.,
2004).
The Brewer Spectrophotometer was designed for spectral irradiation
measurements in the ultraviolet (UV-B) range of the solar spectrum. This
apparatus makes measurements at five wavelengths, 306.3, 310.1, 313.5, 316.8,
and 320.1 nm, which allows the deduction of the total column of the
atmospheric gases, such as ozone (O3) and other atmospheric compounds.
This ground-based device can make as many as 40 measurements per day
depending on the weather conditions. On 21 October 2016 (295 on the Julian
calendar), the Brewer performed 15 measurements, which are considered valid
according to the operation of the instrument (Vaz Peres et al., 2017) as well
as the days before and after the launch.
NASA's Thermosphere Ionosphere Mesosphere Energetics and Dynamics (TIMED)
satellite has a circular orbit of 625 km at 74.1∘ from the Equator
(Cooper, 2004). The data obtained from this satellite allow the need to study
the influence of solar radiation and human activities in the upper layers of
the atmosphere (from 60 to 180 km). The radiosonde cannot reach this region
and this satellite is the only one that can provide global measurements of
this wide range of altitude. The sounding of the atmosphere was done using
broadband emission radiometry (SABER), which is one of the instruments on
board the TIMED satellite. This device is a multi-spectral radiometer that
measures daily vertical profiles through near-infrared measurements between
1.27 and 17 µmm, with a typical accuracy above 5 % in most
channels and a vertical resolution of about 2 km (Bageston et al., 2011).
The data collected through the TIMED/SABER satellite are available from
altitudes between 10 and 120 km.
Another satellite used in the present study was AURA, which is part of NASA's
Earth Observing System (EOS). The Aura orbit is Sun-synchronous at an
altitude of 705 km with 98∘ inclination. One of the instruments on
board AURA is the Microwave Limb Sounder (MLS), which measures the emission
of thermal microwaves from different regions and scans the Earth every
24.7 s (French and Mulligan, 2010). The AURA/MLS satellite measures the
atmospheric composition, such as temperature, humidity and ozone. In
addition, it is also possible to obtain measurements during the day and night
around the globe by means of the AURA/MLS satellite, which acquires data even
in the presence of glacial clouds and aerosol from infrared, visible and
ultraviolet measurements (AURA, 2018).
The same as Fig. 3 but for the temperature and
the additional GPS-RO profile (green).
The temperature was also compared with data obtained from the Cosmic
Satellite Constellation which utilize the radio occultation (RO) technique to
retrieve the temperature profiles (Foelsche et al., 2006). The RO technique
uses the effect of the radio signal refraction in the atmosphere when the
satellites of the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) are occult for
the receivers on the ground. Through this technique it is possible to
retrieve, besides temperature, other important variables, such as the
atmospheric density, water vapour and densities of several constituents
(GNSS) (COSMIC, 2018).
The last instrument used in this study was the Ozone Monitoring Instrument
(OMI) on board the ERS-2/NASA satellite. It was launched to replace the Earth
Probe Satellite (TOMS-EP), which ended its activities in 2015 (Antón et
al., 2009). The OMI instrument records data from the total ozone column and
other atmospheric parameters related to ozone chemistry and climate, such as
NO2 and SO2. This instrument can also distinguish different types
of aerosols, including smoke, dust and sulfates, in addition to measuring pressure and
cloud cover and creating a hyperspectral image in the visible and ultraviolet
spectrum (OMI, 2018).
The measurements obtained by the AURA/MLS and TIMED/SABER satellites are in
mixing ratio, although the balloon measurements are in partial pressure.
Thus, it was necessary to convert the satellite data unit from mixing ratio
to partial pressure for a reliable comparison between the two
sets of data.
This paper presents a full multi-instrumental analysis of a strong ozone
secondary effect over southern Brazil and Uruguay between 21 and
23 October 2016. The ozone and temperature profiles observed during the
occurrence of this ozone depletion event were compared to the climatology for
Santa Maria between 1996 and 1998 (Guarnieri et al., 2004).
If the measurements of the instrument were not simultaneous, it could imply
poor data correlation. However, the instruments in this study did not perform
simultaneous measurements at the same location and on/at the same day/time.
Nevertheless, the results were efficient in identifying poor ozone air mass
displacement and analysis of this event.
Total ozone column as measured by the Brewer Spectrophotometer at
the Southern Space Observatory (SSO/INPE), São Martinho da
Serra/RS-Brazil from 18 to 24 October 2016.
Time evolution of the total ozone column as observed by the OMI-ERS2
satellite from 19 to 22 October 2016. Available at OMI (2018). The effect of
the ozone hole over South America, especially over Uruguay and southern
Brazil, which is the region highlighted in the light blue plume.
According to the instruments presented above, data were collected in southern
Brazil and Uruguay. The locations of each ozone and temperature profile
collected by the satellites and sounding balloon are in Fig. 2. The
TIMED/SABER satellite, which is denoted by a blue circle, passed over the
regions of interest on 19 October in Uruguay and in the coastal region of Rio
Grande do Sul on 23 October. The AURA soundings, which are denoted on the map
by a red circle, passed over Uruguay on 20 October and southern Brazil on
21 October. The ozonesonde was launched on 21 October in Santa Maria (red
triangle) and reached 31 km height east of the launching site (orange
triangle). In addition to these instruments, a closet temperature profile,
which was retrieved from GPS radio occultation (green circle on the map), was
used for the temperature profile and obtained by radiosonde for a reliable
comparison since the two profiles were very close to each other.
Results
Ozone profiles are shown in Fig. 3 for 19, 20, 21 and 23 October. There were
no satellites passing over the regions on 22 October. The vertical dashed
lines delimited the peak positions from the climatology and observations at
around 24 km height. The ozone profile was obtained over the Uruguayan
region (near the coast) at around 14:00 UT on 19 October by the AURA/MLS
satellite (red profile), which is depicted in Fig. 3a. This shows a regular
behaviour (main peak around 24 km height) that is very similar to the
climatology for the state of Rio Grande do Sul (grey profile).
On 20 October the TIMED/SABER satellite (blue profile) carried out
measurements at about 110 km to the north of the previous day over Uruguay.
These sounding data reveal a considerable decrease in ozone concentration
when compared to the climatology (Fig. 3b). In fact, this is the most
prominent decrease registered during the observation period, with an opposite
peak to the climatology, which was at around 24.5 km height with the same
order of magnitude (∼ 120 µhPa). This intense inversion of
the layer exposes evidence of an influence of the ozone hole. On 21 October
(Fig. 3c), which is the day the ozonesonde was launched, the poor ozone air
mass was identified by both the balloon (in Santa Maria) and the AURA/MLS
satellite (∼ 130 km to the east of Santa Maria). These two instruments
uncovered a significant decrease in the ozone profile at around 24 km
height. The balloon profile (black points) presented a larger decrease when
compared to the AURA/MLS profile (in red), although it presented positive
agreement between the two profiles throughout the coincident altitudes
measured. Despite the measurements not being performed at the exact same
place, both the balloon and the AURA/MLS satellite presented very similar
ozone profiles. These profiles displayed less intense reduction than the
previous day over Uruguay and approximately 60 µhPa below the
climatology peak (half of the previous day's reduction). Nevertheless, this
apparatus unveiled a reversal of the ozone layer at around 24.5 km height
and showed the influence of the ozone hole over Santa Maria.
As previously mentioned, there were no measurements for the ozone and
temperature profiles on 22 October. However, the Brewer Spectrophotometer
registered that the total ozone content was still low on this specific day
(Fig. 5). The ozone for 23 October recovered considerably according to the
TIMED/SABER satellite data retrieved over the coast of the state of Rio
Grande do Sul (Fig. 3d). Although the ozone profile had a considerable
reduction on this day (∼ 45 µhPa) at the nominal ozone peak
in relation to climatology, the ozone layer was recovering, with its main
peak at about 20 km height with a value higher than the climatology maximum.
The temperature response to the high ozone depletion over Uruguay and
southern Brazil, which occurred mainly on 20 and 21 October, warrants special
attention. A sequence of temperature profiles from 19 to 23 October is
presented in Fig. 4 in the same way as in Fig. 3. An ordinary temperature
profile that is very similar to the climatology is detailed in Fig. 4a with a
tropopause height at around 16 km, which is in agreement with data shown in
Fig. 3a, where no record of a significant decrease in the ozone layer was
identified. Notwithstanding, with the arrival of a polar air mass over
Uruguay on 20 October the temperature profile showed a double tropopause and
one inversion layer between these two pauses (∼ 23 km height), being
the absolute minimum around 25 km height. These phenomena were strongly
linked to the effect of the ozone hole over Uruguay observed on this day. The
upper minimum of temperature (at about 25 km) was due to the minimum of
ozone registered at this height. The temperature inversion (∼ 23 km),
on the other hand, was a consequence of energy deposition (from above) in the
residual ozone below the ozone minimum. From 22 to 21 km the ozone continued
to decrease with another minimum (∼ 21 km) being registered, which is
related to the lower tropopause. The temperature profile above 25 km
followed its expected behaviour.
On 21 October (Fig. 4c), the balloon, AURA/MLS and radio occultation (GPS-RO)
measurements presented the tropopause right after the tropopause
(∼ 19 km) presented by climatology, which is a consequence of ozone
content reduction. The temperature measurements from the balloon and GPS-RO
satellite showed practically identical values from ∼ 3 km height to
the tropopause, even though the balloon and GPS-RO obtained their profiles at
quite distinct local times (2.5 h apart) but were nevertheless very close to
each other. Furthermore, it is possible to identify an inversion layer around
22 km height, although in this case the main tropopause is located
∼ 5 km below the maximum in ozone concentration, more specifically at
∼ 19 km (from the balloon) or 8 km (from GPS-RO and AURA/MLS). A
second minimum in temperature (as observed by the balloon data) is located
just below the ozone minimum, which is at about 23 km.
The temperature profile obtained from the TIMED/SABER satellite near the
coastal region of Rio Grande do Sul on 23 October can be seen in Fig. 4d.
This graph shows that the thermal structure in the upper troposphere and
lower thermosphere was already returning to normal conditions. The typical
condition in terms of temperature is noted by the high similarity between the
TIMED/SABER and climatological profiles, where they match each other around
the tropopause (15–17 km heights) and altitudes between 26 and 31 km (the
highest altitude reached by the balloon). This confirms that the polar air
mass, which is poor in ozone, was already leaving southern Brazil and is
therefore in agreement with the ozone recovering process in Fig. 3d at about
20 km height.
The Brewer Spectrophotometer also performed measurements of the total ozone
content between 18 and 24 October over São Martinho da Serra/RS-Brazil
(29.53∘ S, 53.85∘ W) (Fig. 5). Ozone is in Dobson units
(DU) and ordinary values were observed around 250 DU for 18 and 19 October.
Still, ozone content dropped to an extreme value of ∼ 225 DU on
20 October. Afterwards, the ozone column began to recover and almost
stabilized on 23 and 24 October.
The HYSPLIT/NOAA model (Fig. 1) also confirmed the event occurrence by using
three distinct altitude levels (∼ 22–28 km). It showed the final
position of the backward trajectories over southern Brazil where the air
mass, which was poor in ozone, acted on 20 October (Fig. 1a) and 21 October
(Fig. 1b). The backward trajectories correspond specifically to the heights
of 22 (red line), 24 (blue line) and 28 km (green line) that are the same
height levels used by Bittencourt et al. (2018) in this special issue for the
analysis of the potential vorticity associated with this event.
The height levels in the HYSPLIT/NOAA model were chosen according to the
height where the ozone maximum was identified. These trajectories show the
arrival of the ozone filaments directly from the Antarctic region, which
originated from the main ozone hole. Finally, the images of the OMI-ERS2
satellite (Fig. 6) also demonstrate the Antarctic ozone mass over a wide
region in Argentina, Uruguay and southern Brazil. The air mass with low ozone
concentration was more dominant from 20 to 22 October, especially in southern
Brazil and Uruguay (the regions analysed here).
Discussion
The influence of the Antarctic ozone hole may reach mid-latitudes. Results of
this study corroborate previous ones such as performed by Kirchhoff et
al. (1996), who reported an ozone content reduction in Santa Maria for a
couple of days in October of 1993. Their results suggested that the ozone
content presented two minimums: ∼ 250 DU on 19 and 28 October. In that
study, the monthly average data were taken for two stations, one with data
collected for 19 years and the other for 13 years, with typical total ozone
content reported around 290 DU. In the present study, a larger decrease was
observed when compared to Kirchhoff's, with a minimum of approximately
225 DU on 20 October, which can be considered a very intense influence of
the ozone hole over southern Brazil. Similarly, validation of the Brewer
Spectrophotometer data using daily averages from the TOMS satellite is also
presented and, therefore, a positive correlation was observed. Additionally,
the present study also confirmed the influence of the Antarctic ozone hole at
mid-latitudes by using validated profiles of the ozone sounding with the
TIMED/SABER and AURA/MLS satellites. The Brewer Spectrophotometer, backward
trajectories by HYSPLIT/NOAA and images from the OMI-ERS2 satellite were also
used and exhibited excellent agreement, thus corroborating data obtained from
our sounding balloon.
Another study that showed ozone profiles created by ozonesonde for the region
of Santa Maria was by Guarnieri et al. (2004), with data from November 1996
to April 1998, which were used to build the climatology used in this study.
They also built the ozone climatology by seasons (autumn, winter, spring and
summer), based on 35 ozonesonde profiles, showing that ozone content is
higher in winter and spring (with a peak of ∼ 135 µhPa at
∼ 23 km height) than in summer and autumn. In the present study, a
minimum value of 70 µhPa was observed at the expected ozone peak
(∼ 24 km) in spring, which corresponds to a value of ∼ 52 %
of typical ozone content observed by the climatology for spring. A maximum
value of ∼ 110 µhPa (22 km height) was observed, while the
climatology for the same altitude was about 120 µhPa. This intense
ozone layer depletion was explained by the influence of the Antarctic ozone
hole that reaches mid-latitudes in austral spring. This effect was remarkable
from 20 to 21 October 2016. Furthermore, Guarnieri et al. (2004) reported a
temperature profile climatology by using the same 35 records of ozone
sounding data over Santa Maria. These data presented the tropopause at about
16–17 km height with a minimum temperature of -70∘ C, whereas in
our observations the tropopause was around 19 km with a corresponding
temperature of ∼-77∘ C, which is much colder than the
climatology at the same height. The characteristics of these temperatures
show the impact of the ozone hole on the temperature.
In a future study, we intend to show the behaviour of UV-B radiation during
an extreme event of influence of the ozone hole through the inclusion of the
calibrated UV data from the Brewer Spectrophotometer as well as satellite
data, as this would show the impact of the ozone hole on UV radiation.
Conclusions
The results of this study confirm an extreme event occurrence of the
Antarctic ozone hole influence in southern Brazil and Uruguay through a
multi-instrumental analysis from 19 to 23 October 2016. Data revealed the
poor ozone air mass trajectory from some days before arriving in southern
Brazil and Uruguay to some days after its passage, and confirmed its polar
origin. In light of this evidence, a drastic reduction in the ozone layer in
the period studied could be detected and the effect of the ozone depletion
was pronounced in the temperature profiles as well. The data here confirm
that ozone has an influence over temperature profiles in the stratosphere.
Furthermore, all the instruments used in this case study proved to be in
agreement between them, with satisfactory results that confirm the influence
of the Antarctic ozone hole.
All SABER satellite data used in this
work have been downloaded using the SABER Custom Data Services tool available
at http://saber.gats-inc.com/data.php. AURA/MLS satellite data have
been downloaded by a user, available at https://aura.gsfc.nasa.gov
(AURA, 2018). OMI-ERS2 satellite data are available at
https://aura.gsfc.nasa.gov/omi.html (OMI, 2018). Radio occultation
satellite data are available at http://www.cosmic.ucar.edu/ (COSMIC,
2018). The climatological data were obtained by Guarnieri et al. (2004). The
ground-based data (Brewer Spectrophotometer) are not available online, but can be
solicited directly by e-mail to José Valentin Bageston
(bageston@gmail.com). The balloon data are not available online, but can be
solicited directly by e-mail to Damaris Kirsch Pinheiro (damaris@ufsm.br).
The authors declare that they have no conflict of
interest.
This article is part of the special issue “Space weather
connections to near-Earth space and the atmosphere”. It is a result of the
6∘ Simpósio Brasileiro de Geofísica Espacial e Aeronomia
(SBGEA), Jataí, Brazil, 26–30 September 2016.
Acknowledgements
This study is part of the undergraduate and graduate programmes in
meteorology of the Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM). It was partially
supported by the Program of Scientific Initiation of the National Council for
Scientific and Technological Development (PIBIC/CNPq-INPE) under process
no. 129536/2017-2. We would like to acknowledge the Southern Regional Space
Research Center (CRS) and Southern Space Observatory (SSO) of the National
Institute for Space Research (INPE-MCTIC) for the availability of their
infrastructure. The authors are also grateful to NASA for the availability of
the data from TIMED/SABER, AURA/MLS and OMI-ERS. We would also like to thank
NOAA for the HYSPLIT model. The COSMIC data used in this study were provided
by the CDAAC of the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research (UCAR)
available at
http://www.cosmic.ucar.edu/index.html. José V. Bageston would like to thank the CNPq for grant no. 461531/2014-3. The present study combines support from the INCT-APA (CNPq process
no. 574018/2008-5 and FAPERJ process no. E-26/170.023/2008) in a project
called “Study of the Mesosphere, Stratosphere and Troposphere over
Antarctica and its connections with South America (ATMANTAR)”, under process
no. 52.0182/2006-5 of Proantar/MCTIC/CNPq and CAPES/COFECUB Program process
no. 88887.130176/2017-01. The topical
editor, Ricardo Arlen Buriti, thanks Maria Paulete and one anonymous referee
for help in evaluating this paper.
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